Wireless Local Area Networks and Security Mechanisms

Wireless Local Area Networks and Security Mechanisms WLAN Wireless Local Area Network LAN Local Area Network IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy WPA Wi-Fi Protected Access NIC Network Interface Card MAC Media Access Control WAP Wireless Access Point AP Access Point NAT Network Address Translation SSID Service Set Identifier IV Initialization Vector IDS Intrusion Detection Systems Wireless local area networking (WLAN) has swiftly become very popular technology all over the world. The WLAN protocol, IEEE 802.11, amongst other associated technologies enable secure access to a wireless network infrastructure. Before the development of wireless networking, clients had to use physical media such as wiring to connect to the network. With the rapid increase in demand and usage of wireless networking, it is vital that secure communication is provided. Since the creation of wireless networks, the security alongside has gone through many different stages of development, from MAC address filtering, to WEP, leading to WPA/WPA2. 2.1 Wireless Communication Wireless communication provides wireless networking between client devices, without the need for a physical connection between them (Obrien, 2008). In order to transmit via wireless signals, radio waves are used. The basic process of communication using radio waves is as follows: A transmitter sends data by turning electrical signals into radio waves A receiver listens for the radio waves and turns them back into electrical signals, which can create the desired output. Figure 1 below shows an illustrated example of this. The use of this communication process enables different scenario requirements to be met, for instance short and longer distances can be achieved simply by altering the strength and size of the transmitter/reciever. It also contains various types of fixed and mobile applications including: mobile phones, two-way radios, computer hardware, GPS units, amongst others. 2.2 Wireless Internet Access Wi-Fi is the term denoted to the functionality in which devices can be connected to the internet without the need of a physical cable. Wi-Fi technology has become the standard for internet access in homes, workplaces and in place spaces. Regardless of the environment, the core setup consists two key components, an access point and wireless devices. 2.2 WLAN Components Within WLAN, two modes of operation exist: ad-hoc and infrastructure. The ad-hoc mode enables a small wireless workgroup to be quickly setup (no access point required), whereas the infrastructure mode is utilized in cooperation with an existing LAN infrastructure; to incorporate wireless clients into the network (Netgear, 2014). Within these two operation modes there are two key components: access points and wireless clients. 2.2.1 Access Points An access points is used to link wireless clients into an existing traditional wired LAN (Netgear, 2014), it doesnt however interconnect two networks (Wallace, 2011). A basic WLAN topology with a Wireless Access Point (WAP) is shown in figure 2. The topology shows an access point connected to the wired LAN, and the wireless clients that connect to the wired LAN via the access point are on the same subnet as the access point (note that no Network Address Translation (NAT) is being performed). Depending on the chosen technology (802.11 a/b/g) and its implementation, a single access point is capable of handling up to several hundred wireless clients (Intel, 2017). The security associated with access points have some special considerations. Many traditional wired networks base the security on physical access, entrusting users currently on the network, whereas anyone within the range of the access point can attach to the network; provided no password is attached. Another concern is if a h acker still manager to bypass the password security, the ability to packet-sniff and intercept data being sent over the wireless network. There are a few security solutions available to address these issues (see section 2.3). 2.2.2 Wireless Clients A wireless client can include a range of devices, including a desktop, laptop, tablet, or mobile phone with a wireless network interface card that enables that device to communicate with an access point. For the client to communicate with the access point, it needs to be configured so that it uses the same SSID (Service Set Identifier) as the access point. An SSID is a case-sensitive alphanumeric string of up to 32 characters (Beal, 2017), and is often referred to as the network name (Intel, 2017). Most access points broadcast their SSID to advertise themselves to wireless clients within its range by default. 2.3 Wireless Security Security is a major concern in wireless networks, where the radio waves carrying the frames can propagate far beyond the confines of the desired area of the wireless access point and hosts; increasing the chances for an unwanted client to connect to the network and intercept data. Within this section, security mechanisms available to address issues surrounding wireless networking including SSID broadcasting, MAC address filtering, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) and Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) will be covered. 2.3.1 SSID Broadcasting As mentioned above it is very common for an access point to broadcast themselves to wireless clients within its radius. This results in clients being able to see all available access points (SSIDs) and choose which one to join, meaning users can easily attach to the network; provided no password is attached. Disabling SSID broadcasting makes it much harder for access points to be identified (Farshchi, 2003). However, this results in the clients having to remember and manually enter the SSID to join a specific access point. Whilst being the simplest security measure available, it by the most ineffective method as it provides very little protection against anything but the most casual intrusion (Ou, 2005). 2.3.2 MAC Filtering Another simple security feature available on many access points in MAC (Media Access Control) Address Filtering. This method utilizes the 48-bit address assigned to each network interface card (NIC) and adds them to either a whitelist or blacklist (Cisco, 2008). The restriction of network access through the use of lists is straightforward, however an individual is not identified by a MAC address, rather a device. The method means that an authorized administrator would need to whitelist or blacklist an entry for every device a client may want to use on the network. The process of specifying the approved and rejected MAC addresses can be controlled through the administrator page of the access point (provided it comes with admin tools available), see Figure 3 above. This form of security may be suitable for small home use, it isnt practical for a business level as it provides a massive overhead for the administrator, as they need to manually add each address. Relying on the security fea ture alone isnt enough, as an individual can easily spoof their MAC address to imitate another device (InfoExpress, 2017). 2.3.3 Wired Equivalent Privacy The IEEE 802.11 WEP protocol was introduced as the privacy component of the original 802.11 specification created in 1997, and was initially designed to provide confidentiality comparable to that of a traditional wired network (IEEE, 1997). Both WEP authentication and data encryption use two types of shared secret keys: 40-bit and 104-bit. To create the total encryption key is a combination of the base shared secret key and a 24-bit parameter called the Initialization vector and is used by both the client and server to decrypt the messages sent. The resulting length of the encryption key is 64-bit for the 40-bit shared key, and 128-bit for the 104-bit shared key (Schenk, 2001). The WEP protocol doesnt provide a key management algorithm, so it assumes that the access point and client have agreed on the shared key via another prior method. With each message sent, the IV component of the encryption key can be changed. The original 802.11 specification doesnt standardize how the new IV s hould be created, with the implementation depending on the chosen algorithm. As the IV component of the key can change, it is sent as clear text with the encrypted message (cipher text), as the recipient needs to know the IV component for them to generate the new encryption key also (see figure 4 for the process overview). By having to send the IV as clear text, this means that if these packets were to be intercepted, an unwanted user could easily gain part of the encryption key and potentially access the data. WEP also has its own authentication process (before the data transfer process can commence) consisting of two distinct modes, Open System, and Shared Key (Qnx, 2017). The Open System mode does not require a key for the authentication process, therefore the client is always authenticated; which also means the same configuration for authentication is not required to match. An illustrated process of the Open System authentication is shown in figure 5 below. The steps to authenticate when using Open System mode (Kurose et al, 2013): The client sends an authentication request to the access point. The access point will then authenticate the requesting client. The client connects to the network. The Shared Key authentication method however, requires an encryption key for the authentication process. Unlike the Open System mode, the Shared Key authentication requires both the client and access point to use the same authentication configuration. An illustrated process of the Shared Key authentication mode is shown in figure 6 below. The following steps occur when using Shared Key Authentication (Kurose et al, 2013): The client sends an authentication request to the access point. The access point sends challenge text to the station. The client uses the pre-configured default key to encrypt the challenge text received, and sends the encrypted text to the access point. The access point decrypts the received text using its own pre-configured key that corresponds to the clients key. The text is compared, and if it matches, then the client is authenticated. The client connects to the network. When WEP was initially created, it performed the job it was designed and intended for; however as technology become more readily available and advanced; the security issues in the WEP protocol began to show. The WEP protocol was contains three major problems which make wireless networking more unsecure. The first major disadvantage is that the shared key needs to be sent to every single user on the network and this isnt an easy task. Another disadvantage is that the encryption key size is only 40-bit or 104-bit; which is a very small size and can easily be hacked with open source software. Due to the security flaws, WEP was deprecated in 2004 with the introduction of WPA and WPA2 to more a more reliable and robust security service. 2.3.4 Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 The 802.11i WPA2 protocol was introduced in 2004, as an improvement upon the intermediate WPA protocol and original WEP protocol. The WPA protocol increases security by introducing two new protocols: 4-way handshake, and the group key handshake. The two protocols use authentication and port access services in WPA2 to create and alter the encryption keys (IEEE, 2004). Add something here The four-way handshake is an authentication process that occurs between an access point and the client. It is method used for them both to prove to one another that they both know the Pairwise Master Key (PMK), without ever needing to disclose any part of the key; already providing more security over WEP. The process of sending encrypted message between the client and access point is still adopted from the WEP protocol, and if they successfully decrypt the message; then it proves they are knowledgeable of the PMK (Chaudhary, 2014). This process is vital in protecting the PMK from malicious and unwanted users, even if an attackers network id (SSID) was impersonating a real access point, the PMK would still never have to be disclosed. Amongst the content in the aforementioned sections, there are other aspects that also relate to both wireless networking and wireless security. The most relevant aspect to consider is operational security, which includes three sub components: firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), and intrusion prevention systems (IPS). These systems provide an extra layer of security to attempt to block, detect and resolve security issues. 3.1 Firewalls A firewall is a combination of software and hardware that isolates an organizations internal network from the internet, controlling which packets are allowed to pass through, and those that are blocked (Boudriga, 2010), by scanning the header fields of each packet to check if it passes the defined criteria. Figure 8 shows an illustrated example of where a physical firewall would sit within a networking infrastructure. Firewalls are often categorized as either network firewalls or host-based firewalls (Vacca, 2009). A network firewall controls the traffic flow between two or more networks, and are typically the form of a software application, but dedicated physical devices are also used. Host-based firewalls on the other hand only controls the traffic for an individual machine (PersonalFirewall, 2017). Both types of firewalls use a set of pre-defined rules that are defined by an administrator through the use of either built in or third party software (see figure 9). Utilizing a firewall as an extra layer of security is a must for many individual computers and networks, as they provide many strengths including: enforcing security and policies for an organizations infrastructure, restricting access to specific services, removes the need to compromise between usability and security, and provides the ability for an administrator to monitor the traffic that flows through the network. Whilst providing many strengths, it does however also have some weaknesses including: only being capable of stopping the traffic that passes through the firewall itself, no ability to protect against an approved item, and they cannot protect against issues created from within the network. 3.2 Intrusion Detection Systems Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are another method used to detect network activity. These systems can take the form of either a device or software application that monitors networks/systems for malicious and/or policy violations (Kurose. 2013); and is logged and handled by management software. IDS systems can be categorized into two types: signature-based and anomaly-based. A signature based IDS maintains a database of known attack signatures. Each signature is simply a set of rules retaining characteristics about a known packet(s), such as port numbers, protocol types, string of bits. Signatures are normally created by network security engineers, however customizations and additions can be made. Despite Signature-based IDS systems being widely deployed, they do have limitations. Most notably, they require previous knowledge of the attack to generate an accurate signature. An anomaly based IDS on the other hand creates a traffic profile as it observes during normal operation, seeking packets that are unusual statistically. The one major benefit about anomaly-based IDS systems is that they dont rely on previous knowledge about existing attacks, as they can potentially detect new attacks on the go. On the other hand, it is an extremely challenging problem to distinguish between normal traffic and simply unusual traffic. In conclusion, it is clear from the literature reviewed that wireless networking has become an extremely popular and sophisticated technology, but brings many security issues along with its use over traditional wired connectivity. As wireless networks utilize electromagnetic waves to transfer data, it is much easier for unwanted users to gain access to the data being transferred between a client and access point. Therefore, resulting in a combination of security features being required, including encrypted authentication and data transfer; along with extra layers such as a firewall and intrusion detection/prevention systems. With new technologies being developed and standards updated, it is vital that these technologies are used to provide the best security when using wireless networking. References Al Tamimi, A. (2006). Security in Wireless Data Networks : A Survey Paper. [online] Cs.wustl.edu. Available at: http://www.cs.wustl.edu/~jain/cse574-06/ftp/wireless_security/index.html Boudriga, N. and Boudriga, N. (2010). Security of mobile communications. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Beal, V. (2017). What is Service Set Identifier (SSID)? Webopedia Definition. [online] Webopedia.com. Available at: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/SSID.html Cisco. (2008). Network VirtualizationAccess Control Design Guide. [online] Available at: http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/solutions/Enterprise/Network_Virtualization/AccContr.html Cisco. (2008). Authentication Types for Wireless Devices. [online] Available at: http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/routers/access/wireless/software/guide/SecurityAuthenticationTypes.html Farshchi, J. (2003) The Essential Components of a Wireless Policy. Wireless Network Policy Development. Part Two. Symantec Corp. 10 October 2003. URL: http://www.securityfocus.com/printable/infocus/1735 IEEE Standard for Information Technology- Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems-Local and Metropolitan Area Networks-Specific Requirements-Part 11. (1997). [Place of publication not identified]: [publisher not identified]. IEEE 802.11i-2004: Amendment 6: Medium Access Control (MAC) Security Enhancements (pdf), IEEE Standards Intel. 2017. Wireless Ethernet LAN (WLAN). (2017). 1st ed. [ebook] Intel. Available at: http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/faqs/wireless-ethernet-lan-faq1.pdf InfoExpress. (2017). Detecting and Preventing MAC Spoofing. [online] Available at: https://infoexpress.com/content/practical/142 Kurose, J. and Ross, K. (2013). Computer networking. Boston: Pearson Mitchell, B. (2016) Wireless Internet Service: An Introduction Microsoft. (2003). How 802.11 Wireless Works. [online] Available at: https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(v=ws.10).aspx Netgear. 2014. Wireless Access Points. [ONLINE] Available at: https://kb.netgear.com/235/What-is-a-wireless-access-point?cid=wmt_netgear_organic Netgear. (2016). How to configure Access Control or MAC Filtering (Smart Wizard routers) | Answer | NETGEAR Support. [online] Available at: https://kb.netgear.com/13112/How-to-configure-Access-Control-or-MAC-Filtering-Smart-Wizard-routers?cid=wmt_netgear_organic Netgear. (2017). WEP Open System Authentication. [online] Available at: http://documentation.netgear.com/reference/nld/wireless/WirelessNetworkingBasics-3-08.html Ou, G. (2005). The six dumbest ways to secure a wireless LAN | ZDNet. [online] ZDNet. Available at: http://www.zdnet.com/article/the-six-dumbest-ways-to-secure-a-wireless-lan/ OBrien, J. Marakas, G.M.(2008) Management Information Systems PersonalFirewall. (2017). What is a Firewall? | How does a Firewall Protect your Computer. [online] Available at: https://personalfirewall.comodo.com/what-is-firewall.html Qnx.com. (2017). Help QNX SDP 6.6 Documentation. [online] Available at: http://www.qnx.com/developers/docs/660/index.jsp?topic=%2Fcom.qnx.doc.core_networking%2Ftopic%2Fwpa_background_Connecting_WEP.html Schenk, R. Garcia, A. Iwanchuk, R. Wireless LAN Deployment and Security Basics. (2001). ExtremeTech.com. URL: http://www.extremetech.com/article2/0,3973,1073,00.asp Sheridan (2017). Printing Services Optimizing Client Printing at Sheridan. [online] Available at: https://it.sheridancollege.ca/service-catalogue/printing/printing-optimization.html Chaudhary, S. (2014). Hack WPA/WPA2 PSK Capturing the Handshake. [online] Kali Linux Hacking Tutorials. Available at: http://www.kalitutorials.net/2014/06/hack-wpa-2-psk-capturing-handshake.html Vacca, J. (2009). Computer and information security handbook. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Wallace, K. (2011). CompTIA Network+ Cert Guide: Connecting Wirelessly | Foundation Topics | Pearson IT Certification. [online] Pearsonitcertification.com. Available at: http://www.pearsonitcertification.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1773082 NIST, 2007 Guide to Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS) (PDF).

Physioex 9 Exercise 6 Notes

PhysioEX notes Autorhythmicity- heart’s ability to trigger its own contractions Phase O- a lot like depolarization in neuronal action potentials. Sodium channels open, increase of sodium INTO cell. Phase 1- sodium channels close, potassium channels close, decrease in potassium and sodium. Calcium channels open, increase of calcium into cell. Phase 2- Plateau phase, membrane still depolarized (contract). Potassium channels closed, L-type calcium channels stay open. Lasts 0. 2 seconds/200 milliseconds.Phase 3- second set of potassium channels open, potassium decrease. Failing membrane potential cause calcium channels to close, calcium decrease to cell. Membrane repolarizes to resting potential. Phase 4- resting membrane potential is reached until next depolarization from neighboring cardiac pacemaker cells. Total cardiac AP last 0. 25-0. 3 seconds or 250-300 milliseconds Wave Summation- occurs when a skeletal muscle is stimulated with such frequency that muscle twitches overlap and result in a stronger contraction than a single muscle twitch.When enough of these twitches occur at a frequent rate, muscle reaches fused tetanus, or smooth movement. Individual twitches cannot be distinguished. Tetanus occurs in skeletal muscle because skeletal muscle has a relatively short absolute refractory period(a period during which APs cannot be generated no matter how strong the stimulus). Cardiac muscles has a relatively long refractory perios and is thus incapable of wave summation. Cardiac muscle is incapable of reacting to any stimulus before middle of phase 3 and will not respond to a normal cardiac stimulus efore phase 4. Absolute refractory period- time between the beginning of the cardiac AP and middle of phase 3. Relative refractory period- time between absolute refractory period and phase 4. Total refractory period = 200-250 milliseconds. Almost as long as the contraction of the cardiac muscle. Vagus Nerve Stimulation The autonomic nervous system has two branc hes: Sympathetic- fight or flight Parasympathetic- resting and digesting At rest, parasympathetic is more active. Sympathetic is more active when needed, during exercise or confronting danger. Read Renal System Physiology PhysioexBoth supply nerve impulses to the heart. Sympathetic stimulation increases rate and force of contraction. Parasympathetic stimulation decreases rate without changing force of contraction. Vagus nerve carries signal to heart (cranial nerve X). Excessive vagal stimulation causes heart to stop beating. Ventricles will start beating after short time. Resumption of heartbeat is called Vagal Escape. Result of sympathetic reflexes or initiation of rhythim by Purkinje fibers. SA node is cluster of autorhythimic cardiac cells in right atrium. SA has fastest rate of spontaneous depolarization.Determineds heart rate and is referred to as pacemaker. SA node generates 100 Aps per minute. Humans are homeothermic- maintaining an internal body temperature at 35. 8 to 38. 2C regardless of outside temperature. When external temp is elevated, hypothalamus signals heat releasing mechanisms (sweat, vasodilation). In extreme external temperatures, body cannot compensat e and hyperthermia (elevated body temperature) or hypothermia(decreased body temperature) occurs. Frog is poikilothermic- internal body temperature changes with external environment temperatures.Ringer’s solution/irrigation- essential electrolytes (chloride, sodium potassium, calcium and magnesium), keeps isolated, intact heart viable. Sympathetic nerve fibers release norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) at cardiac synapses. Norepinephrine and epinephrine increase frequency of AP by binding to B1 adrenergic receptors embedded in plasma membrane of SA cells. cAMP second messenger mechanism, bing of ligand opens sodium and calcium channels, increasing rate of depolarization and shortening period of repolarization, increasing heart rate.Parasympathetic NS usually dominates; releases acetylcholine at cardiac synapses. ACH decreases frequency of AP by binding to muscarinic cholinergic receptors in plasmas membrane of SA cells. ACH indirectly opens potassium channels and closes calcium and sodium channels, decreasing rate of depolarization and decreasing heart rate. Cholinergic- chemical modifiers that inhibit, mimic or enhance action of ACH. Adrenergic- chemical modifiers that inhibit, mimic or enhance action of epinephrine. If the modifiers works like a neurotransmitter, it is an agonist.If the modifier works opposite of a neurotransmitter, it is an antagonist. Resting cell membrane favors movement of potassium more than sodium or calcium. Resting membrane potential is determined by ratio of extracellular and intracellular concentrations of potassium. Phase 0 (rapid depolarization)- sodium moves in Phase 1 (small repolarization) – sodium movement decreases Phase 2 (plateau) – Potassium movement out decreases, Calcium moves in Phase 3 (repolarization)- potassium moves out, calcium movement decreases Phase 4 (resting potential) – potassium moves out, little sodium or calcium moves inCalcium channel blockers used to treat high BP and abnormal HR. Block calcium movement in all phases of cardiac action potentials. Result- depolarization rate and force of contraction reduced. Modifiers that affect HR are chronotropic Modifiers that affect force of contraction are inotropic. Modifiers that lower HR are negative chronotropic Modifiers that increase HR are positive chronotropic Modifiers that decrease force of contraction are negative inotropic Modifiers that increase force of contraction are positive inotropic

Listening And Writing In Esol Planning And Teaching Education Essay

Talking, listening, reading and composing are considered to be reciprocally mutualist upon one another in linguistic communication acquisition. Although talking coherently and clearly is by and large recognised as the most of import end for 2nd linguistic communication ( L2 ) talkers, peculiarly ESOL talkers ( Murphy 1991:52 ) , competency in reading and composing finish a scholar ‘s proficiency in L2. Speaking and hearing may be described as the major accomplishment countries of interpersonal communicating ( Murphy 1991: 52 ) . Whether through synergistic or teacher-instruction, the hearing accomplishment will find how scholars develop eloquence and competency in the linguistic communication being learnt ( Nation and Newton 2009 ; Ellis 2003 ) . Listening is cardinal in linguistic communication acquisition because it non merely aids competency in speech production, but besides in reading. Ellis ( 2003 ) has noted that research workers and instructors have their ain purposes in prosecuting hearing as a linguistic communication accomplishment. For research workers, listening provides agencies for look intoing scholars ‘ ability to treat specific lingual characteristics ( Ellis 2003: 37 ) . In position of this, he suggests that focused undertakings can be devised by ‘seeding ‘ the input with the targeted characteristic and planing the undertaking in such a manner that the merchandise result can merely be achieved if the scholars are successful in treating the targeted characteristic. Therefore, listening undertakings provide an first-class agencies for mensurating whether scholars have acquired the characteristic in inquiry. On the other manus, listening accomplishments can be devised to ease the acquisition o f the targeted characteristic ( Ellis 2003: 37 ) . This essay discusses how the four linguistic communication accomplishments of hearing, reading, speech production and composing are mutualist in assisting a scholar achieve competency in larning English as a 2nd linguistic communication. As we already know, synergistic linguistic communication larning depends a batch on listening and talking accomplishments ( Ellis 2003 ) . However, a good balanced linguistic communication class which consists of four approximately equal strands of learning/instruction in the linguistic communication schoolroom ( Nation and Newton 2009 ) , known as meaning-focused input, meaning-focused end product, language-focused acquisition, and eloquence development, conveying out the common dependence of the four linguistic communication accomplishments. The four strands methodological analysis as described by Nation and Newton ( 2009:1 ) may be summarised as follows: larning though meaning-focused input, that is, larning through hearing and reading where the learners'attention is on the thoughts and messages conveyed by the linguistic communication larning through meaning-focused end product, that is, larning through speech production and composing where the learners'attention is on conveying thoughts and messages to another individual larning through deliberate attending to linguistic communication points and linguistic communication characteristics, that is, larning through direct vocabulary survey, grammar exercisings and account, through attending discourse characteristics and consider acquisition and pattern of linguistic communication acquisition and linguistic communication usage schemes, and larning through developing fluid usage of known linguistic communication points and characteristics over the four accomplishments of hearing, speech production, reading and composing Second linguistic communication acquisition shows that suitably focussed attending to linguistic communication points can do a really positive part to acquisition ( Doughty 2003 ; Doughty & A ; Williams, 1998 ; Ellis 2005 ) . A well-planned linguistic communication class has an appropriate balance of these four strands. Through these four strands the scholars achieve the learning ends of a linguistic communication class, viz. fluid control of sounds, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse characteristics of linguistic communication, so that they can be used to pass on efficaciously. A justification of the four strands is the time-on-task rule, that is, learning-to-read by reading or learning-to-write by composing ( Nation & A ; Newton 2009:2 ) . The more clip one spends making something, the better they are likely to make it. Those who read a batch, for case, are better readers ( Cunningham & A ; Stanovich 1991 ) , and those who write a batch normally become better writes. The grounds for the four strands draws on a big and turning organic structure of research into the functions of input, end product and focussed direction on L2 acquisition and on development of speech production and reading eloquence ( Nation & A ; Newton 2009:3 ) .Meaning-focused input: acquisition through hearing and readingThe meaning-focused input strand involves larning through hearing and reading, that is utilizing linguistic communication receptively. It is called ‘meaning-focused ‘ because in all the work done in this strand, the scholars ‘ chief focal point and invol vement should be on understanding, and deriving cognition or enjoyment or both from what they listen to and read. Typical activities in this strand include extended reading, shared reading, listening to narratives, watching Television or movies, and being a hearer in a conversation ( see Hinkel 2006 ) .Meaning-focused end product larningMeaning-focused end product involves the scholars bring forthing linguistic communication through speech production and composing were the scholars ‘ focal point is on others understanding the message ( Nation & A ; Newton 2009 ) . It occurs when scholars write essays, and assignments, when they write letters, dairies, direct electronic mail and text messages to each other and when they write about their experience. As spelling is peculiarly of import in authorship, holding to compose can do scholars cognizant of the spreads in their spelling cognition ( Nation 2009:18 ) . Writing activities that can assist with spelling are copying, delayed copying, read and compose from memory, command, the assorted signifiers of guided authorship, composing with the aid of a dictionary and free authorship.Language-focused acquisitionLanguage-focused acquisition has many names ; concentrate on signifier, form-focused direction, deliberate survey and consider instruction or acquisition as opposed to acquisition, or knowing acquisition ( Nation & A ; Newton 2009:7 ) . It involves calculated acquisition of linguistic communication characteristics such as pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and discourse. A assortment of activities may be used, such as pronunciation pattern, utilizing permutation tabular arraies and drills, larning vocabulary from word cards and intensive reading. Other activities may be interlingual rendition, memorizing duologues an acquiring feedback about authorship. There are legion techniques for giving calculated attending to spelling, for illustration. . The critical factor is doing certain that there is an appropriate balance of each of the four strands so that there is some calculated attending to spelling but this attending does non go inordinate. Deliberate attending can include a figure of activities such as screen and recover, utilizing analogies, utilizing word parts, articulating the word the manner it is spelled and visualizing. There is need to look at each of these techniques:Cover and RetrieveThe scholar writes a list of hard to spell words down the left-hand side of the page ( state 2009:19 ) . The first missive or two of each word is written following to it, for illustration: yacht Y happening O The words are studied and so covered and each word is written from memory utilizing the first missive hint. The first missive is written once more so that the activity can be repeated. yacht yacht YUsing analogiesWorking with the instructor or in little groups, the scholars think of known words that portion similar spelling characteristics to words that they have trouble in spelling. For illustration, if larning to spell ‘apply ‘ , the scholars think of the known words ‘reply ‘ , ‘supply ‘ which are words with similar spelling characteristics and sound ( Nation 2009:19 ) .Using word partsWord parts may be helpful in pulling attending to word constructing units. This may be peculiarly utile with progress scholars. For illustration, the word ‘separate ‘ contains the root ‘par ‘ which is besides in ‘part ‘ . Therefore, the spelling is ‘separate ‘ non ‘seperate ‘ .Pronouncing the word the manner it is spelledTeaching spelling is one of the great challenges of linguistic communication instruction. As a guideline, Nation ( 2009 ) encourages that students may be encouraged to i ntentionally misspeak a word like ‘yacht ‘ /yaect/ as a sort of mnemonic for spelling. Learners may besides be encouraged to look at a word, close their eyes and seek to ‘see ‘ the spelling of the word in their head. This is what is called ‘visualising ‘ a word.The instance for incorporating linguistic communication acquisition accomplishmentsAlthough a big figure of traditional methods of linguistic communication larning continue to be utile, current surveies encourage incorporating linguistic communication accomplishments in the linguistic communication schoolroom. For case, learning reading can be easy tied to instruction on authorship and vocabulary, and unwritten accomplishments lend themselves to learning pronunciation, listening and cross-cultural linguistic communication interaction ( Hinkel 2001 ; Lazaraton 2001 ; McCarthy & A ; O'keeffe 2004 ) . Task-based instruction of L2 accomplishments has built-in chances for more accurate and complex utilizations of linguistic communication ( Ellis 2003 ) . For illustration, narrations and description undertakings in fluency-focused instruction, arguments and problem-solving undertakings promote increased grammatical and lexical complexness in learner linguistic communication. Through these undertakings a significant betterment in the sum of spoken discourse and in grammatical, lexical and articulative competency is enhanced. English linguistic communication has become more internationalised, and hence, instruction of accomplishments such as pronunciation has shifted from aiming native-like speech patterns to aiming intelligibility ( Tarone 2005 ) . In this respect, instruction has to turn to issues of segmental lucidity, that is, the articulation of specific sounds, word emphasis and inflection and the length and timing of intermissions. The current attack to learning pronunciation is by and large based on three principled standards. First, pronunciation and modulation are taught in context and in concurrence with specific accomplishments. Second, direction in pronunciation serves broader communicative intents, and eventually but non least, the instruction of pronunciation and modulation is based on realistic instead than idealistic linguistic communication theoretical accounts ( Chun 2002 ) . The 1980s saw a displacement from the position of L2 listening every bit preponderantly lingual to a schema-based position, and listening teaching method moved off from its focal point on the lingual to the activation of scholars ‘ top-down cognition ( Hinkel 2006:9 ) . Emphasis now, is on the incorporate instruction of listening for communicating and in concurrence with other L2 accomplishments such as speech production, socio-pragmatics, grammar and vocabulary. The lingual and schema-driven strands of learning listening have found a niche in current incorporate attacks, such as task-based or content-based direction ( Snow 2005 ) . The design of listening pattern, for case, can integrate a figure of characteristics that make the development of L2 listening abilities relevant and realistic. Listen-and-do undertakings, for illustration, stand for a flexible beginning of listening input for get downing o intermediate scholars. The content of undertakings can be easy controlled in respect to their lingual and conventional variables, such as frequent happenings of mark syntactic and lexical constructions in the context of meaning-focused undertaking ( Ellis 2003 ) . This is done in countries of grammar buildings, words and phrases or colloquial expressions.Recent research has shed a great trade O visible radiation on the procedures and acquisition of L2 reading. As in hearing, L2 reading involves both top-down and bottom-up cognitive processing. Eskey ( 1988:95 ) suggests that the strongly top-down prejudice neglected scholars weak Aress of lingual processing. the bottom-up processing of reading involves a wide array of distinguishable subskills, such as word acknowledgment, spelling and phonological processing, morpho syntactic parsing and lexical acknowledgment ( Eskey 2005 ) . The reader needs to garner ocular information from the written text, place the significance of words, and so travel frontward to the processing of the construction and significance of lager syntactic units, such as phrases or sentences. Ocular processing of words and letters represents a cognitively complex undertaking ( Koda 1999 ; Chikmatsu 1996 ; Shimron & A ; Savon 1994 ) . Readers whose L1 writing systems are markedly diffrent from the that of L2 may be slowed down in their reading procedure by the demand to achieve fluid L2 word acknowledgment before geting text-processing accomplishments. The findings of L2 reading research on the cardinal function of bottom-up processing, word acknowledgment eloquence, and the acknowledgment of the morphophonemic construct ion of words and phrases have led to substantial displacements in reading and literacy direction to immature and big L2 scholars likewise. As an illustration, in 1999, the National Literacy Strategy in the UK introduced work on phonics, word acknowledgment, and in writing cognition primo to sentence and text degrees of direction ( Hinkel 2006:13 ) . In teacher instruction, current methodological analysis text editions reflect the alteration in positions on learning L2 reading, literacy and authorship. Most influential L2 instruction and larning publications have seen the demand to include at least a chapter on the instruction of bottom-up reading accomplishments normally followed by direction in top-down and strategic reading ( Celce-Murcia 2001 ; Carter & A ; Nunan 2001 ; Mckay 1993 ; Nunan 1999, 2003 ; Wallace 1993 ) .

Gender Expression and Social Norms Essay - 804 Words

Around the world gender is genuinely seen as strictly male or female. If you step out of this â€Å"social norm,† you could be considered an outcast. This disassociation includes, biological males/females, interssexed, and transgendered individuals. These people are severely suppressed by society because their gender identification, behaviors, and even their activities deviate from the norm. Most Americans are exceedingly devoted to the concept that there are only two sexes. Therefore, the constrictive American ideals of male and female gender identities inhibits growth and acceptance of gender expression. Each gender is separated by untold rules or guidelines that they must abide by. This in turn creates inner tensions that inhibit†¦show more content†¦These traits are typically given to boys, which, Billy had not embodied. For girls, stereotypes still apply, but they are often less enforced. Many girls are able to dress, act, and be who they want to be, but these ab ilities can come with a price. Some girls are made fun of for being too masculine or, in other words, a â€Å"tomboy.† This, like the boys, can create inner tensions that inhibit their personal growth. Girls are also considered to be shy, weak, and submissive. These stereotypes vary from person to person, and do not apply to just one specific gender. Many â€Å"gender neutral† activities and clothes are commonly accepted in America. This creates more of an accepting, and open environment for girls while leaving the boys with the troublesome route. In earlier times, Americans were once dominated by the belief that there was only one sex, the optimum physical form being male. Hermaphrodites, or now known as interssexed, were considered and looked at as sub-standard humans who had fallen short of maleness. Interssexed is a social status assigned at birth to a person that has both female and male characteristics. For first time parents, hearing the question â€Å"is it a boy or girl?,† genuinely is a simple answer, but for some parents with interssexed children, it can be very problematic. Around the world hundreds of babies are born each year where their gender isn’t clear. Prompt surgeries areShow MoreRelatedExamining Sub-Cultures: The Goth Culture1665 Words   |  7 Pagesinherently subject to collaborative norms and values that have been instilled in humanity, with the consideration that this varies across cultures. 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